Enigma Machine in use (from Wikipedia)

This is the first post in the series on automated machine translation. The content is largely taken from class notes from a natural language processing course I took a few years ago. Although it will contain some mathematical equations, it is meant to be understood by a non-technical audience. If there are any errors, please correct me.

Introduction

“Et dixit: Ecce, unus est populus, et unum labium omnibus: cœperuntque hoc facere, nec desistent a cogitationibus suis, donec eas opere compleant. Venite igitur, descendamus, et confundamus ibi linguam eorum, ut non audiat unusquisque vocem proximi sui … Et idcirco vocatum est nomen ejus Babel, quia ibi confusum est labium universæ terræ: et inde dispersit eos Dominus super faciem cunctarum regionum.”  - Genesis xi:6-7, 9.

The idea of automated machine translation started with the end of World War II. At that time mathematicians who had cracked the German Enigma code started discussing whether they could use their cryptography techniques to translation. Warren Weaver, a famous mathematician and cryptographer, in his seminal 1949 memorandum proposed the following,

It is very tempting to say that a book written in Chinese is simply a book written in English which was coded into the “Chinese code.” If we have useful methods for solving almost any cryptographic problem, may it not be that with proper interpretation we already have useful methods for translation?

Although Weaver specifically mentions Chinese as a language to translate, with the advent of the Cold War between the West and the Soviet Union, many saw the need for automated Russian-to- English translations. The fruits of these efforts were seen some five years after Weaver’s memorandum. On January 7, 1954, at its headquarters in New York, IBM held the first public demonstration of a computer developed collaboratively by IBM and Georgetown that successfully translated sixty sentences of Russian texts on various topics to English. Although the computer was relatively simple, having been only programmed with six “grammar” rules and two-hundred fifty words most of which were directed towards organic chemistry terms, these results captivated the public’s attention and kindled other researchers’ interest in the field.

Prominent researchers in the automated machine translation field even announced that the problem would be solved within a decade. The dream of having a computer take speech of one speaker in one language, translate it into another language, and then synthesize a voice speaking the translated text seemed within reach. Such optimism, however, quickly evaporated, as reality set in. In 1966, the Automatic Language Processing Advisory Committee (ALPAC), a committee established by the US government to evaluate research done in the computational linguistics field, published a report on machine translation. In its report, ALPAC expressed skepticism over progress of machine translation. The committee found that machine translation was not cost-effective, as computers at this time were very large and expensive. ALPAC also questioned its practically, specifically noting that an increasing number of American scientists and engineers, the most likely potential users of such a system, were already gaining fluency of the Russian language and were able to read Soviet scientific journals. The effect of the ALPAC report was to bring about the end of substantial government funding for some twenty years.

Although the ALPAC report certainly curbed enthusiasm in the machine translation field,  the field did not completely die and continued on. With the increased availability of computers and growing consumer demand, interest in machine translation picked back up again in the 1980s. Researchers were also encouraged by the successes in the closely related field of speech processing. Today, machine translation services are one of the most frequently used services that some websites provide. Popular machine translation services include Systran (Babelfish) and Google Translate.

There are primarily two approaches in machine translation: (1) rule-based and (2) statistical. These will covered in the next posts.

I have decided to take a break from the usual and write blog posts on one of the various topics in natural language processing (NLP), a field of study that is concerned with how computers process human language. Applications of this field include automated machine translation, optical character recognition, speech synthesis, speech recognition, and information retrieval, to name a few. I myself have done some research work in speech recognition. The first series of posts will be on automated machine translation. I will try to explain it in a simple manner so that a layman can appreciate and understand it. I will also cover and explain other areas of natural language processing throughout the year, perhaps two or three more times this year.

Shin Saimdang (申師任堂, 신사임당, 1504-1551) was a Chosun dynasty artist, calligrapher, and poet. She is the mother of Yi I (李珥, 이이, 1536-1584), who appears on the 5,000 won note. She was of the Pyeongsan Shin clan (平山申氏, 평산신씨); her courtesy name (字, 자 or 堂號, 당호) was Inseon (仁善, 인선); and her pen name (號, 호) was Saimdang (師任堂, 사임당).  Shinsaimdang is viewed as the model of Confucian motherhood, and is called a “benevolent mother and good wife” (賢母良妻, 현모양처,Hyeonmoyangcheo), for being not only fulfilling household duties but also being well versed in Confucian Classics.

She first appeared on Korean currency in 2006 on the 50,000 Won note, making her the first woman to appear on a Korean currency note. This decision was not without controversy, as Korean feminists criticized the addition on various grounds. It should be, however, noted that there was a movement among Neo-Confucian scholars to educate women and better their status. It is thus no surprise that women authors in Classical Chinese first start really appearing during the Ming Dynasty in China and the Chosun dynasty in Korea, at the same time that Neo-Confucianism became the adopted philosophy.

思親 사친

Longing for Parents

千里家山萬疊峯 천리가산만첩봉
歸心長在夢魂中 귀심장재몽혼중
寒松亭畔孤輪月 한송정반고윤월
鏡浦臺前一陣風 경포대전일진풍
沙上白鷗恒聚散 사상백구항취산
海門漁艇任西東 해문어정임서동
何時重踏臨瀛路 하시중답임영로
更着斑衣藤下縫 경착반의등하봉

Thousand Li away my hometown’s mountains and the ten-thousand layered peaks
Return to my mind and remains long within my dreaming soul.
On the ridge of the Hansong Pavilion, the lonely wheeled moon shines;
In front of the Gyeongpo Gazebo, one sudden wind blows.
Above the sands, the white gulls always gather and scatter;
At the sea gate, the fishing boats ably go West and east.
At what time may I again walk the roads of Imyeong
And again wearing my colorful dress and below the wisteria tree sew?

Notes:

• Hansong Pavilion (寒松亭, 한송정, Hansongjeong) is a pavilion located in Hashidongri (下詩洞里, 하시동리) in Gangreung (江陵, 강릉). It is one of the oldest structures in Korea.
• Gyeongpodae Gazebo (鏡浦臺, 경포대, Gyeongpodae) is a storied structured located in Jeodong (苧洞, 저동) in Gangreung.
• Imyeong (臨瀛, 임영) is the old name for Gangreung.

Characters:

• 疊(첩) – To be layered (첩첩하다).
• 畔(반) – Ridge (밭두둑).
• 白鷗(백구) – White gull.
• 艇(정) – Small boat.
• 斑衣(반의) – Colorful dress.

King Sejong (世宗大王, 세종대왕, 1397-1450, r. 1418-1450) was the fourth monarch of the Chosun dynasty. He is famous for many deeds, including expanding Korea’s borders, renewing the sciences, and promulgating the Hangul alphabet. One of the first works in Hangul was the “Songs of Dragons Flying to Heaven.” Even today, many Koreans know at least the first line of one of this song in Korean (“뿌리 깊은 나무는…”). What most Koreans do not know is that this was a translation of Classical Chinese poems written by the Chosun court. King Sejong first appeared on the 100 Won note in 1962 and has been on the 10,000 Won note since 1973.

龍飛御天歌 용비어천가

Songs of the Dragons Flying to Heaven

根深之木 風亦不扤 근심지목 풍역불올
有灼其華 有蕡其實 유작기화 유분기실
源遠之水 旱亦不竭 원원지수 한역불갈
有斯爲川 于海必達 유사위천 우해필달

A tree with deep roots in the wind also does not shake.
Flourishing are its blossoms; Many are its fruits.
A water with a distant fountainhead in drought does not dry.
This becomes a stream and to the sea it surely reaches.

Characters:

• 扤(올) – To shake (흔들리다).
• 灼(작) – To be flourishing (성하다).
• 蕡(분) – To have many fruits.

Yi I (李珥, 이이, 1536-1584) was a Chosun dynasty literati bureaucrat and a Neo-Confucian scholar. He was of the Deoksu Yi Clan (德水李氏, 덕수이씨); his courtesy name (字, 자) was Sukheon (叔獻, 숙헌); his pen name (號, 호) was Yulgok (栗谷, 율곡). He is revered as not only a Neo-Confucian scholar who wrote many treatises but also as a political reformer. One of his notable proposed reforms but that was ultimately rejected was strengthening the military, in response to the threat of an imminent Japanese invasion, which occurred some eight years after his death. He first appeared on the 5000 Won note in 1972 and still appears on Korean currency today.

湖堂夜坐 호당야좌

At Hodang, Sitting Throughout the Night

湖堂久不寐 호당구불매
夜氣著人淸 야기저인청
葉盡知秋老 엽진지추로
江明見月生 강명견월생
疎松搖榻影 소송요탑영
塞鴈落沙聲 새응락사성
自愧紅塵客 자괴홍진객
臨流未濯纓 림류미탁영

In Hodang (湖堂, 호당), as for a long time I have been unable to sleep,
The energy of the night appears to me vividly.
The leaves have all fallen and know the Autumn’s elderliness;
And the river is clear and see the Moon’s liveliness.
The loose pine tree shakes its shadow atop the stool;
And the frontier wild goose drops its voice on the sand.
I naturally become ashamed: the red dust’s guest
Faces the flowing waters, but has not yet washed his hat string.

Notes:

• Hodang (湖堂, 호당) is a library first established in 1426 by King Sejong (世宗, 세종, 1397-1450, r. 1418–1450) where renowned scholars and literati bureaucrats would be sent to study and cultivate their knowledge. In 1491, King Seongjong (成宗, 성종, 1457-1494, r. 1469-1494) renovated a dilapidated Buddhist temple that is now located in Yongsan (龍山, 용산) and made it into a Hodang. King Jeongjo (正祖, 정조, 1752-1800, r. 1776-1800) abolished the Hodang, and expanded the Gyujanggak Royal Library (奎章閣, 규장각).
• “Has not yet washed his hat string” (未濯纓, 미탁영) is a reference to Qu Yuan’s (屈原, 굴원, Gul Weon, 343-278 BC) Fisherman’s Song (漁父辭, 어부사):

滄浪之水淸兮 可以濯吾纓
창랑지수청혜 가이탁오영
滄浪之水濁兮 可以濯吾足
창랑지수탁혜 가이탁오족

“If the waters of the ocean waves are clean, I can wash my hat-string.
If the waters of the ocean waves are muddy, I can wash my feet.”

Characters:

• 榻(탑) – Stool (걸상).
• 紅塵(홍진) – Literally means “red dust” and refers to the secular mundane world.
• 纓(영) – Hat string (갓끈).

Yi Hwang (李滉, 이황, 1501-1570) was a Chosun dynasty Neo-Confucian scholar and literati bureaucrat. He was of the Jinbo Yi Clan (眞寶李氏, 진보이씨); his courtesy name (字, 자) was Gyeongho (景浩, 경호); his pen name (號, 호) was Toegye (退溪, 퇴계); and his posthumous name (諡, 시) was Munsun (文純, 문순). As a Neo-Confucian Scholar, he is famous for writing several treatises on Neo-Confucianism and establishing the Dosan Seoweon (陶山書院, 도산서원), a private Confucian academy. As a literati bureaucrat, he was appointed various offices and served four kings of the Chosun dynasty. Upon his death, he was posthumously promoted to the highest ministerial office and bestowed a posthumous name. Yi Hwang first appeared on the 1000 Won note in 1983, when the Bank of Korea started printing Korean Confucian scholars on all of its currency notes.

陶山月夜詠梅 도산원야영매

At Mount Do in the Moonlit Night a Poem on the Plum Tree

獨倚山窓夜色寒 독기산창야색한
梅梢月上正團團 매초월상정단단
不須更喚微風至 불수갱환미풍지
自有淸香滿院間 자유청향만원간

Alone I lean on the window to the mountain; the night hue becomes cold.
At the tip of the plum tree, the moon rises, perfectly round and circular.
Even if I should not again call the winds to arrive,
Naturally, there is pure fragrance filling the space of my house.

步屧中庭月趁人 보섭중정월진인
梅邊行繞幾回巡 매변행요기회순
夜深坐久渾忘起 야심좌구혼망기
香滿衣布影滿身 향만의포영만신

Walking in my wooden shoes in the courtyard, the moon follows me.
At the edges of the plum tree, I travel around; how many times did I revolve around?
As the night grows deep, sitting for awhile, it becomes blurry and I forget to stand up.
The fragrance fills my clothes and the shadow fills my body.

晩發梅兄更識眞 만발매형갱식진
故應知我怯寒辰 고은지아겁한신
可憐此夜宜蘇病 가련차양의소병
能作終宵對月人 능작종소대월인

The late-blossoming plum is magnificent and still more recognizes the truth.
Therefore, it certainly knows me and that I fear the cold season.
What a pity! If this night justly revives me from my illness,
Then I can make me the entire night a man facing the moon.

Notes:

• Mount Do (陶山, 도산, Do San) is a mountain north of Andong (安東, 안동).

Characters:

• 梢(초) – The end tip of a tree branch (나뭇가지의 끝).
• 喚(환) – To call (부르다).
• 屧(섭) – Wooden shoes (나막신).
• 趁(진) – To follow (쫓다).
• 繞(요) – To cover (두르다).
• 渾(훈) – To be blurry (흐리다).
• 兄(형) – Here, to be excellent (훌륭하다).
• 宵(소) – Night (밤).

I hope readers enjoyed the series on Children’s Instructional Books. I have one more post left for that exhibit. For the next exhibit, I will be translating poems by various figures who are on the Korean Won currency notes.

The Classic of Poetry (詩經, 시경) is one of the oldest poetry collections known to mankind, with some poems dating back to the 10th century BC. Because of its age, it is probably one of the hardest, if not the hardest, Classical Chinese works to read. Luckily, it is more bearable to read if read with annotations. Zhu Xi (朱熹, 주희, Ju Heui, 1130-1200) compiled an annotated version of the Classic of Poetry (詩經集註, 시경집주), explaining the different meanings of characters as well as what various verses are supposed to symbolize. The poem below is about gratitude for one’s parents, fitting in light of the fact that in Korea it was Parents’ Day (어버이날) on May 8th and in America it will be Mothers’ Day on May 12th.

蓼莪 육아

The Overgrown Mugworts

蓼蓼者莪 匪莪伊蒿 육육자아 비아이호
哀哀父母 生我劬勞 애애부모 생아구로

Thick and overgrown is the mugwort; it is not the mugwort, but this wormwood.
How sad and triste were my father and mother! To have begotten me with toil and labor.

比也. 蓼, 長大貌. 莪, 美菜也. 蒿, 賤草也.
비야. 육, 장대모. 아, 미채야. 호, 천초야.

This is an explicit comparison (比, 비, Bi). 蓼 (육, Yuk) is the shape of [something] large and big. 莪 (아, A) is a type of beautiful vegetable. 蒿 (호, Ho) is a type of vulgar weed.

人民勞苦, 孝子不得終養, 而作此詩. 言昔謂之莪, 而今非莪也, 特蒿而已,
인민로고, 효자부득종양, 이작차시. 언석위지아, 이금비아야, 특호이이,

As the people labor and toil, a filially pious son could not in the end support [his parents] and wrote this poem. It was said in the past he was a [beautiful] mugwort but now not a [beautiful] mugwort and is especially only a [vulgar] wormwood.

以比父母生我, 以爲美材可賴以終其身, 而今乃不得其養以死.
이비부모생아, 이위미재가뢰이종기신, 이금내부득기양이사.

This is a comparison to his parents’ begetting me, so that he became a beautiful timber and was able to be trusted so that he completed his body, but now hereon he was unable to support [his parents] and died.

 於是, 乃言父母生我之劬勞, 而重自哀傷也.
어시, 내언부모생아지구로, 이중자애상야.

Thereupon, he spoke of his parents’ toils and labors in begetting me and once again became sad and distressed.

蓼蓼者莪 匪莪伊蔚 육육자아 비아이위
哀哀父母 生我勞瘁 애애부모 생아로췌

Thick and overgrown is the mugwort; it is not the mugwort, but this sagebrush.
How sad and triste were my father and mother! To have begotten me with toil and suffering.

比也. 蔚, 牡菣也, 三月始生, 七月始華, 如胡麻華而紫赤, 八月爲角, 似小豆, 角銳而長. 瘁, 病也.
비야. 위, 모견야, 삼월시생, 칠월시화, 여호마화이자적, 팔월위각, 사소두, 각예이장, 췌, 병야.

This is an explicit comparison (比, 비, Bi). 蔚 (위, Wi) is an apiacea; in March first sprouts; in July first blossoms, like a hemp blossom and is purple and red; and in August grows a horn, similar to a small bean and its horns are sharp and long. 瘁 (췌, chwe) is to be sick.

• 菣(견) – Apiacea.

缾之罊矣 維罍之恥 병지경의 유뢰지치
鮮民之生 不如死之久矣 선민지생 불여사지구의
無父何怙 無母何恃 무부하호 무모하시
出則銜恤 入則靡至 출즉함휼 입즉마지

The emptiness of the pitcher, it is only the shame of the jar.
The lives of orphaned people, they are not like length of death.
Without a father, who is there to rely on? Without a mother, who is there to depend on?
To leave is to bite on grief; to enter is to go nowhere.

• 怙(호) – To trust or rely upon.

比也. 缾, 小. 罍, 大, 皆酒器也. 罄, 盡. 鮮, 寡. 恤, 憂. 靡, 無也.
비야. 병, 소. 뢰, 대, 개주기야. 경, 진. 선, 과. 휼, 우, 마, 무야.

This is a explicit comparison (比, 비). 缾 (병, byeong) is small; 罍 (뢰, roe) is large; they both are wine bottles. 罄 (경, gyeong) is to run out. 鮮 (선, seon) is to be orphaned. 恤 (휼, hyul) is anxiety. 靡 (마, ma) is nothing.

言缾資於罍, 而罍資缾, 猶父母與子相依爲命也.
언병자어뢰, 이뢰자병, 유부모여자상의위명야.

This is saying that a small wine bottle forms the basis of the large wine bottle and the large wine bottle forms the basis of the small wine bottle, and that this is similar to parents and sons mutually depending on one another to survive.

故, 缾罄矣, 乃罍之恥, 猶父母不得其所, 乃子之責. 所以窮獨之民, 生不如死也.
고, 병경의, 내뢰지치, 유부모부득기소, 내자지책. 소이궁독지민, 생불여사야.

Therefore, when the small wine bottle empties, it is the large wine bottle’s shame. This is similar to what the parents have been able to obtain and becomes the responsibility of the son. For that reason, people who are in destitute and alone live no better than death.

蓋無父則無所怙. 無母則無所恃. 是以, 出則中心銜恤, 入則如無所歸也.
개무부즉무소호. 무모즉무소시. 시이, 출즉중심함휼, 입즉여무소귀야.

In general, without a father, there is no one to rely upon and without a mother, there is no one to depend on. For this reason, to leave is to hold anxieties within the heart and to enter is like not returning.

父兮生我 母兮鞠我 부혜생아 모혜국아
拊我畜我 長我育我 부아축아 장아육아
顧我復我 出入腹我 고아부아 출입복아
欲報之德 昊天罔極 욕보지덕 호청망극

Father, who has begotten me! Mother, who has nourished me!
You have patted me; you have fed me; you have upreared me; you have nurtured me;
You have looked after me; you have returned to me; and out and in you bore me.
I wish to recompense your graces; it is like the grand heavens, boundless.

賦也. 生者, 本其氣也. 鞠, 畜, 皆養也. 拊, 拊循也. 育, 覆育也.
부야. 생자, 본기기야. 국, 축, 개양야. 부, 부돈야. 육, 부육야.

This is a narrative poem (賦, 부). To be begotten (生, 생) is to make one’s vitality, the root. 鞠 (국, Guk) and 畜 (축, Chuk) are both to nourish. 拊 (부, Bu) is to pat and to sooth. 育 (육, Yuk) is to nurture.

顧, 旋視也. 復, 反覆也. 腹, 懷抱也. 罔, 無. 極, 窮也.
고, 선시야. 복, 반부야. 복, 회포야. 망, 무. 극, 궁야.

顧 (고, Go) is to turn around and look. 復 (복, Bok) is to return. 腹 (복, Bok) is to hug and bear. 罔 (망, Mang) is without. 極 (극, Geuk) is bounds.

言父母之恩如此. 欲報之以德, 而其恩之大, 如天無窮, 不知所以爲報也.
언부모지은여차. 욕보지이덕, 이기은지대, 여천무궁, 불지소이위보야.

This is to say that the parents’ kindness are like this: I wish to recompense their graces and the greatness of their kindness, which like heaven is without bounds, but I do not know how to recompense.

南山烈烈 飄風發發 남산렬렬 표풍발발
民莫不穀 我獨何害 민막불곡 아독하할

The Southern Mountain is large and high; the whirlwind is fast and rapid.
The people are not not-happy; Why am I alone hurting?

興也. 烈烈, 高大貌. 發發, 疾貌. 穀, 善也.
흥야. 렬렬, 고대모. 발발, 질모. 곡, 선야.

This is a implicit comparison (興, 흥). 烈烈 (열렬, Yeolryeol) is the shape of something high and large. 發發 (발발, Balbal) is the shape of something fast. 穀 (곡, Gok) is to favor.

南山烈烈, 則飄風發發矣, 民莫不善, 而我獨何爲遭此害也哉.
남산렬렬, 즉표풍발발의, 민막불선, 이아독하위조차해야재.

Since the Southern Mountain is large and high, the whirlwind is fast and rapid. The people are not not-happy, but why do I alone face this pain?

南山律律 飄風弗弗 남산률률 표풍불불
民莫不穀 我獨不卒 민막불곡 아독부졸

The Southern Mountain is big and tall; the whirlwind is quick and swift.
The people are not not-happy; Why am I alone not finish?

興也. 律律, 猶烈烈也. 弗弗, 猶發發也. 卒, 終也. 言終養也.
흥야. 률률, 유렬렬야. 불불, 유발발야. 졸, 종야. 언종양야.

This is a implicit comparison (興, 흥). 律律 (율률, Yulryul) is similar to 烈烈 (열렬, Yeolryeol). 弗弗 (불불, Bulbul) is similar to 發發 (발발, Balbal). 卒 (졸, Jol) is to finish, that is, to finish supporting [one's parents].

晉王裒, 以父死非罪, 每讀詩, 至哀哀父母, 生我劬勞, 未嘗不三復流涕.
진왕부, 이부사비죄, 매독시, 지애애부모, 생아구로, 미상불삼복류제.

Wang Pou (王裒, 왕부, Wang Bu, ?-311) of the Jin Dynasty, because his father passed away for not a crime, every time read the poem to “How sad and triste were my father and mother! To have begotten me with toil and labor” (哀哀父母 生我劬勞) and soon reading it thrice never did not cry.

受業者, 爲廢此篇, 詩之感人, 如此.
수업자, 위폐차편, 차지감인, 여차.

Those who have received the work [of lecturing] have removed this work. How people are moved by the poem is like this.

Yu Gye (兪棨, 유계, 1607-1664) was a Chosun dynasty scholar and literati bureaucrat. He was of the Gigye Yu Clan (杞溪兪氏, 기계유씨); his courtesy name (字, 자) was Mujung (武仲, 무중); his pen name (號, 호) was Shinam (市南, 시남); and his posthumous name (諡, 시) was Munchung (文忠, 문충). He excelled in the study of etiquette (禮學, 예학) and history. Yu Gye was exiled for taking a bellicose position during the Second Manchu Invasion of Korea (丙子胡亂, 병자호란).

In the poem below, he writes about the Start of Spring, or Ipha (立夏, 입하). It is one of the twenty-four solar terms of the year and falls around May 5th of each year. On this day, frogs were supposed to start croaking, earthworms were supposed to come out of the ground, and cucumbers were supposed to sprout.

立夏日杏花初開
입하일행화초개

On the Day of the Start of Summer, The Apricot Flowers Start to Blossom

庭花初綻雨紛繽 정황초탄우분빈
四月關山似早春 사월관산사초춘
遙想故林濃綠晩 요상고림농록만
滿園桃杏總成仁 만원도행총성인

The courtyard’s flowers have started to blossom; the rain in disorder and disarray.
In April, my hometown’s mountain is as if early Spring.
From afar, I think of the old forest, turning deep green late.
Filling the garden are peaches and apricots; they all have achieved benevolence.

Characters:

• 綻(탄) – To blossom (피다).
• 關山(관산) – Refers to a mountain near one’s hometown.

King Jeongjo (正祖, 정조, 1752-1800, r. 1776-1800) was the twenty-second monarch of the Chosun dynasty. His name (諱, 휘) was Yi San (李祘, 이산); his courtesy name (字, 자) was Hyeong’un (亨運, 형운); and his pen name (號, 호) was Hongjae (弘齋, 홍재). He was the grandson of King Yeongjo (英祖, 영조, 1694-1776, r. 1724-1776). He is the son of the stained Crown Prince Sado (思悼世子, 사도세자) and Lady Heongyeong (獻敬王后, 헌경왕후). King Jeongjo was popular for his reforms of the agricultural system, establishment of the Kyungjanggak Archives (奎章閣, 규장각), and curbing abuses of the civil examination system.

In the poem excerpt below, King Jeongjo gathered several Confucian scholars from the Seonggyungwan (成均館, 성균관) as well as his own ministers and took turns composing a couplets. It is in commemoration of ”Grain Rains,” or Gok’u (穀雨, 곡우). Gok’u is one of the twenty-four solar terms of the year and falls around April 20th every year. It marks the last of the solar terms associates with Spring. It was widely believed that if rain did not fall on Gok’u that that was a bad omen for the harvest season.

便殿, 召見泮製被抄諸生, 賜賞物有差饋之酒. 時穀雨霏微, 春意藹然.
편전, 소견반제피초제생, 사상물유차궤지주. 시곡우비미, 춘의갈연.

At a Side Room of the Palace, the Confucian Students [Who Were] Chosen by a Ledger (泮製, 반제) Were Called for an Audience [With the King]. They Were Given Gifts and [Commensurate] With Their Different [Ranks] Given Wine. At That Time, It Was the Grain Rains (穀雨, 곡우, Gok’u), the Rain was Drizzling, and the Spring Mood Was Lush.

以”春雨瓊林讌綠袍”爲題, 仍拈春字, 與諸生及在筵者聯韻.
이”춘우경림연록포”위제, 잉념춘자, 여제생급재연자련운.

“In the Spring Rain of Gyeongrim, a Feast for the Blue Robed” Was Made the Theme. Thus, the Character for Spring (春, 춘, Chun) Was Picked and Together With the Confucian Students and Those on Mats Connected Rimes.

• 饋(궤) – To send as gift (보내다).
• 藹(갈) – To be lush (우거지다).
• 讌(연) – To host a feast (잔치하다).
• 拈(념) – To pick (집다).
• 筵(연) – Bamboo mat (대자리).

養來元氣一家春 양래원기일가춘
樽酒論文又見眞 준주론문우견진
御製 어제

Having been fostered and having arrived, the vitality has become one house’s Spring;
Drinking jars of wine and debating texts, let us again see our true selves.
Composed by the King.

• 樽酒(준주) – Wine casket (술통).

周代菁莪霑化溥 주대청아점화부
宋時奎壁啓休新 송시규벽계휴신
臣愚在 신우재

The fostering of talent in the Zhou age (周, 주, Ju, 1046-256 BC) has expanded the learning of enlightenment;
The accessibility of classics in the Song times (宋, 송, Song, 960-1279) has made anew the revealing of the beautiful.
Composed by Yi Ujae (李愚在, 이우재).

• 菁莪(청아) – Refers to educating individual talent.
• 霑化(점화) – Literally “Bedewed by enlightenment.”
• 奎壁(규벽) – Refers to an abbreviated edition of a Confucian classic.
• 休(휴) – Perhaps means “to be beautiful” here (아름답다).

融融禮樂昭明會 융융례악소명회
物物芳華澹蕩辰 물물방화담탕신
臣榮輔 신영보

The peaceful and tranquil etiquette music (禮樂, 예악) shines upon and illuminates this gathering;
The flowery and bright of all things and affairs are clear and vast set time.
Composed by Seo Yeongbo (徐榮輔, 서영보).

• 辰(신) – Here, “set date” (擇日, 택일).

需國元資多吉士 수국원자다길사
右文爭喜見吾身 우문쟁희견오신
臣樂浚 신낙준

Serving the country originally was to aid the many auspicious scholars;
The exalted classics challenge to my delight and see to my body.
Composed by Hong Nakjun (洪樂浚, 홍낙준).

• 右文(우문) – Refers to the esteem and respect for learning of classics.

璇霄寶墨頻題卷 선소보묵빈제권
槐市薰風幾拂巾 괴시훈풍기불건
臣晩秀 신만수

The precious ink of the jade-like heaven often write on scrolls;
The gentle winds of the locust tree market for how many times shake the cloths?
Composed by Yi Mansu (李晩秀, 이만수)

• 璇霄(선소) – Refers to blue skies.
• 槐市(괴시) – Refers to the market east of Chang’an (長安, 장안, Jang’an), one of the major capitals in ancient China, where literati gathered on the first day or the day of the full moon of the month to trade classics, musical instruments, and other materials. The streets around the market were planted with locust trees (槐, 회).

雋選靑錢新製妙 준선청전신제묘
親裁玉尺舊䂓因 신재옥척구규인
臣羲翼 신희익

Selecting the distinguished with blue coins, this new composition is exquisite;
Creating personally an inch of jade, the standards have been followed.
Composed by Yi Heuik (李羲翼, 이희익).

• 雋選(춘선) – To select those talented and outstanding.
• 靑錢(청전) – Literally, “blue coins.” It refers to passing the civil examination.
• 玉尺(옥척) – Literally, “an inch of jade.” It refers to the degree of doing well on the examination.

…